Constructivism in Practice

The generating and testing of hypothesis is a strategy that can be applied across all content areas through problem based instruction (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, and Malenoski, 2007). This strategy can incorporate a wide variety of other strategies that can result in improved student achievement. The concept behind generating and testing of hypothesis is very similar to that of Problem Based Instruction (PBI) in that they both engage students in solving real problems through the use of higher order thinking skills such as predicting, analyzing, and evaluating (Han and Bhattacharya, 2001; Pitler et al, 2007). These strategies are both examples of constructionism because students are creating something – a solution. The solution is an artifact because it is a real thing, although it may take many different forms. The theory of constructionism supports the use of highly engaging activities that result in students creating an artifact in order to allow them to make meaning and create their own understanding of the concept (Han and Bhattacharya, 2001; Laureate Education, Inc, 2011). There are many technology tools that can allow students solve problems through PBI and the generating and testing of hypothesis.

In a science class, students may use virtual labs in order to develop and test a hypothesis about flammability that may be too dangerous to complete in a classroom. They are creating data through this process and analyzing the data in order to evaluate their hypothesis. Spreadsheets can be used to collect the data in order to analyze it effectively. Students may use a wiki to collect and collaborate on the data asynchronously, as well as to provide feedback to other groups. Students could use any of a variety of possible presentation tools, Power Point, Prezi, or Animoto in order to share their results with the class, school, or community.

In a social studies class, students may use their knowledge of historical myths or legends to develop a question and hypothesis about the accuracy of details related to a major historical event such as the assassination of President Lincoln. Students can use virtual field trips and primary sources such as court documents, newspaper reports, and the writings of those directly involved in order to test their hypothesis.

These are just two examples of how constructionist theory can be supported in the classroom through the use of generating and testing of a hypothesis as part of Problem Based Instruction with the use of technology. It is imperative that students are working on real-world problems that are meaningful to them so that they are challenged and motivated. The supports that teachers establish in the development of the activity allow students to work within their zone of proximal development. The challenges that they create push students beyond that zone and into a deeper level of learning.

 

 

Sources:

Han, S. and Bhattacharya, K. (2001). Constructionism, Learning by Design, and Project Based Learning. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging Perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved 9/21/2012 from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/index.php

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011). Program seven: Constructionist and constructivist learning theories [Video webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com/ec/crs/default.learn?CourseID=5700267&CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com&Survey=1&47=2594577&ClientNodeID=984650&coursenav=0&bhcp=1

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Cognitivism in Practice

Cues, Questions, and Advance Organizers

As a cognitive theory, cues, questions, and advance organizers provide an organizational framework for the information that students are learning (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007). This helps to encode information into a student’s long term memory by developing connections to previous knowledge and creating a network model (Laureate Education, Inc, 2011). The use of graphic organizers, “thinking maps”, and brainstorming software, help make the connections between pieces of information or new and prior knowledge to create networks in the brain to improve the memory, or learning, of the material (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007). I have used Inspiration and Thinking Maps with much success. By providing an organizer, or a framework for the information, students are able to visualize a location or connection for each piece of information. There are many free, online or printable graphic organizers available from sources such as http://www.eduplace.com/graphicorganizer/ or http://www.thinkport.org/technology/template.tp. After extensive use of these frameworks, I have seen students internalize the framework, identify the one that works for them, and identify the organizational structure of text based on knowledge of these frameworks. Internalizing is the ultimate example and goal of the cognitive learning theory – the learning and model become engrained in the student’s mind.

Cueing and questioning can be difficult to implement effectively without providing too much support or prompting. Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski (2007) give very good advice when they suggest that cues be “straightforward and provide students with a preview of what they are about the learn” (p. 77). This allows students to develop their own connections during learning and discover ideas and relationships independent of the teacher’s opinion. The use of an essential question can provide a strong and steady framework for learning through one question. Concept mapping can be used to develop the information from an advance organizer throughout the learning process. Students can use a tool such as http://www.spiderscribe.net/ to begin and develop the learning process. A concept map allows students to expand on the essential question and develop a response by organizing the ideas as they are acquired.

 

Summarizing and Note Taking

There are many technology tools that can help students develop summarizing and note taking skills and develop the cognitive framework to improve learning. The use of concept maps and graphic organizers can be used for these skills by providing an organizational structure for the information while allowing students to expand and connect based on their own prior knowledge. For example, students can use Inspiration or a concept map to connect ideas and add meaningful details to their notes (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007). The use of technology can enhance this tool by allowing students to access and incorporate meaningful images to increase understanding and memory (Laureate Education, Inc, 2011). Many of the software applications include a tool for turning the visual organizer into an outline. This can provide another framework and help move from information gathering into the writing process (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007). In addition to software such as Word or Inspiration, Web-based applications such as concept mapping tools and wikis can be used to turn this into a collaborative process.  

 

Experiential Learning

An important component to the cognitive learning theory is experiential learning (Laureate Education, Inc, 2011). While this may take different forms and hold a different value to theorists, it is the personal connection and experience that contributes to moving something from rote learning and short term memory to a personal experience and the long term memory. Experiential learning can take many forms, all of which hold some benefit to learning (Oxendine, Robinson, & Willson, 2004). From personal experience, I know that language immersion through study abroad can be a very effective way to move from text-book language learning to fluency and culture. While this is an expensive and time-consuming form of learning, virtual field trips can help students move beyond book learning and develop firsthand experience when travel is unrealistic due to limitations. Virtual field trips can also break the barrier of time travel by providing a virtual experience of a part or future location. As an English teacher, I have used the virtual field trip to the Globe Theater in order to help my students see what the theater experience was like in Shakespeare’s time. Allowing students to explore virtually provides them the freedom and curiosity that is often stifled in through teacher-centered instruction.

 

Sources:

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011a). Program five: Cognitive learning theory [Video webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com/ec/crs/default.learn?CourseID=5700267&CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com&Survey=1&47=2594577&ClientNodeID=984650&coursenav=0&bhcp=1

Oxendine, C., Robinson, J., & Willson, G. (2004). Experiential learning. In M. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved /1/2012, from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/

 

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Behaviorism in Practice

Behaviorism as an educational theory states that students learn by receiving feedback to shape their behavior (Standridge, 2002). The basis of this theory began with Skinner and Pavlov's experiments with animal responses. To learn more about the history of behaviorism, click here. While some people question the effectiveness of behaviorism in today's classrooms, there are effective strategies that incorporate technology that are based in this theory (Laureate Education, Inc, 2011).

One strategy that incorporates technology with providing the feedback to shape behavior is reinforcing effort with spreadsheet software (Pitler, Hubbell, Kuhn, & Malenoski, 2007). This strategy reinforces the behavior of effort by providing visual feedback in the form of a spreadsheet, chart, or graph so that students can see the connection between the effort they put forth and the points or grades they earn. Teachers can create a rubric to using tools such as rubistar.4teachers.org so that students can evaluate their effort consistently. The feedback provided is visual and makes an abstract concept concrete. Students can make connections by looking at a bar graph with side by side comparison of effort and grade to make the connection. The result of shaping effortful behavior can be achieved with feedback that reinforces the effort with increased points or grades. This is a form of positive reinforcement because the student is gaining something from their behavior (Standridge, 2002).

Another strategy based in behaviorism is the use of technology to support homework and independent practice. Technology can make homework a more effective process by providing feedback without the presence of a teacher. This may happen through the use of collaborative tools, multimedia capabilities, websites, or software applications (Standridge, 2002). Homework and practice are only useful if they are meaningful. One examples would be to have students use wikis such as wikispaces in order to collaborate asynchronously with each other and the teacher while providing feedback through the comment posts. They can also play educational games, such as those available on Internet4Classrooms, to practice skills and receive immediate feedback and error correction.

The true connection between technology and behaviorism is the ability to shape a behavior by providing immediate feedback; in the past this was only available through human contact. The availability of technology increases the opportunity for behaviorism to have a renaissance. It is important to remember, however, that the feedback provided by technology cannot replace the feedback provided by a human. Most learning is not as clear as a right or wrong answer, but many skills can be reinforced and internalized through the use of technology as one of many strategies applied.

Sources:

Laureate Education, Inc. (Producer). (2011). Program four: Behaviorist learning theory [Video webcast]. Bridging learning theory, instruction and technology. Retrieved from http://laureate.ecollege.com/ec/crs/default.learn?CourseID=5700267&CPURL=laureate.ecollege.com&Survey=1&47=2594577&ClientNodeID=984650&coursenav=0&bhcp=1

Pitler, H., Hubbell, E., Kuhn, M., & Malenoski, K. (2007). Using technology with classroom instruction that works. Alexandria, VA: ASCD.

Standridge, M. (2002). Behaviorism. In m. Orey (Ed.), Emerging perspectives on learning, teaching, and technology. Retrieved 9/1/2012 from http://projects.coe.uga.edu/epltt/